Last Updated: 15 August, 2015

Introduction

Britain is an island nation, and the British Government has always understood the importance of controlling and defending Britain’s seas. This is still a big part of what the Royal Navy does, but by no means all.

As well as being first and foremost a fighting force, serving alongside Britain’s allies in conflicts around the world, the Royal Navy also protects Britain’s ports, fishing grounds and merchant ships and helps to tackle international smuggling, terrorism and piracy.

Further, the Royal Navy has increasingly been involved in humanitarian and relief missions, where their skills, discipline and resourcefulness make a real difference to people’s lives.

This article will provide an overview of the structure of the Royal Navy and organisational changes in terms of manpower. The article will then provide a general outline of the recruitment and selection process (i.e. how to join the Royal Navy) by looking at areas such as eligibility, fitness standards, minimum qualifications, and tests and interviews.

Finally, the article will look at funding streams and outline the future Royal Navy before providing some useful links.

Structure of the Royal Navy

The Royal Navy is made up of a number of ships and land establishments which are categorised into one of five groupings:

1. Surface Fleet (SF): consists of amphibious ships, type 42 and 45 destroyers, type 23 frigates, mine counter measures vessels, P2000 patrol boats, ocean and coastal survey vessels, and an Antarctic patrol ship.
2. Submarine Service (SS): Vanguard ballistic nuclear missile submarines, Trafalgar class fleet submarines, and Astute class fleet submarines.
3. Fleet Air Arm (FAA): Sea King M7 airborne surveillance and control helicopters, Sea King M5 search and rescue helicopters, Sea King M4 assault helicopters, Merlin Mk1 maritime patrol helicopters, Lynx Mk7 battlefield helicopters, and Lynx Mk3 and Mk8 helicopters.
4. Royal Marines (RM): for structure view Royal Marines Recruitment & Selection Overview.
5. Royal Fleet Auxiliary (RFA): Fleet tankers, support tankers, fleet replenishment ships, landing ships dock, a casualty and aviation training ship, and a forward repair ship.

The Royal Navy and the Royal Marines combine to form the Royal Naval Service. The Royal Fleet Auxiliary is a civilian organisation based along military lines, and like the Royal Marines, is not discussed in this article.

The Royal Navy is made up of both Commissioned Officers and Other Ranks (known as Ratings).

Due to a number of structural changes (see below) and economic pressures the Royal Navy is increasingly utilising a Joint Force (or tri-Service) model of working with the British Army and Royal Air Force (RAF). Typically the tri-Service concept is the removal of duplication and the standardisation of procedures, but also enables the Ministry of Defence (MoD) to make efficiency savings.

Organisational Change

Since 1963 there have been nine important organisational change initiatives (always resulting in a reduction in total manpower) by both the MoD affecting the Royal Navy – resulting in greater integration (tri-Service model) – and cost savings between the three service branches) and initiatives by the Royal Navy resulting in both greater integration and significant structural change. These organisational change initiatives are outlined in Table 1 below:

Table 1: Defence reviews since 1963
Title	Year	Government	Manpower Change
Healey Reviews	1965-1968	Labour	Unknown
Mason Review	1974-1975	Labour	Unknown
Nott Review	1981	Conservative	Unknown
Options for Change	1990	Conservative	RN down to 60,000
Front Line First: The Defence Costs Study	1994	Conservative	RN down by 1,900
Strategic Defence Review	1998	Labour	RN down by 1,400
Strategic Defence Review New Chapter	2002	Labour (in response to the 9/11 attack	Some structural change otherwise manpower neutral overall
Delivering Security in a Changing World	2003	Labour	RN down 1,500
Strategic Defence and Security Review	2010	Conservative & Liberal Democrat Coalition	RN down by 5,000 to 30,000
Source: Taylor, 2010

Manpower Requirements

The MoD calculates the numbers that need to be enlisted to maintain the Royal Navy’s manning levels. The MoD takes account of changing unit establishments, wastage caused by servicemen and women leaving the Royal Navy at the end of their engagements, and those who might choose to leave before their engagements come to an end (PVR or Premature Voluntary Release). The number required in each trade in the Royal Navy is assessed and figures are published at six monthly intervals so that adjustments may be made during the year.

Traditionally, the Royal Navy has not met these recruiting targets but since January 2013 has been in surplus due to reductions in the manpower requirements. The shortfall in recruiting tends to be worse for the Army and for particular trades within the RAF and Royal Navy.

With this in mind, the full time trained strength of the Royal Navy was 30,610 at 01 November 2013, against the requirement for a full time trained strength of 30,440 personnel (DASA, 2013a).

By 2020 the Royal Navy will have a full time requirement of 29,000 personnel (DASA, 2013a).

The latest figures suggest that the Royal Navy requires approximately 2,000 new personnel each year (DASA, 2013a).

Key Points

Key points to note regarding Royal Navy manpower include (DASA, 2013b):

At 1 April 2013:

• There were 33,960 (trained and untrained) Royal Navy personnel, of which 6,940 were Officers and 27,020 were Other Ranks.
• The percentage of women in the Royal Navy was 9.1% in April 2013.
• Black and Minority Ethnic (BME) personnel comprised 3.5% of the Royal Navy, continuing a long term gradual increase in the proportion of BME personnel.
• 48% of Naval Service personnel were aged under 30, compared with 56% of Army and 40% of the RAF.
• 0.1% of Royal Navy personnel were under the age of 18, and 22.8% were under the age of 25.

In the 12 months to 31 March 2013:

• 44.4% of all Other Ranks intake occurred under the age of 20; compared with only 3.3% of all Officer intake.
• 68.5% of all Officer intake comprised personnel aged between 20 and 24; compared with only 39.1% of Other Ranks intake.
• The profile of outflow by age is to some extent determined by the nature of contracts under which personnel serve. In the 12 months to 31 March 2013, common exit ages for Officers were 40 and over. Nearly 60% of all Other Ranks outflow occurred between the ages of 20 and 34; however there is also a peak at age 40 which broadly corresponds with personnel completing a full 22-year career.

A General Outline of the Recruitment and Selection Process

Within the UK individuals tend to be attracted to individual service branches rather than the military per se. Each Service has their own identity, ethos, core values and standards and people tend to join the Army, Navy or Air Force. This is reflected in the way that each service branch conducts separate recruitment and marketing campaigns. Each has its own strap-line (e.g., the Royal Navy’s is “Life Without Limits”).

Selection is conducted separately for each of the Services, but the selection processes are similar in nature. All three Services have different selection procedures for Officers and Other Ranks. However, all include interviews, aptitude and ability testing and some personality measures. There is a filtering system that will select people at the initial application stage, while others will be invited to attend an assessment centre which can last up to three days. As well as technical ability, individuals will be assessed on their general qualities to be a member of the UK military. In addition, preliminary medical examinations will also be carried out including checks on weight, eyesight and hearing, and individuals will need to pass a physical fitness assessment.

Table 2, below, provides an outline of the current Royal Navy recruitment and selection process.

Table 2: Outline of the Royal Navy recruitment and selection process
Step	Ratings	Officers
1	Initial Application Application Forms, RN, Form S3049 RN (2015-02) Application Forms, RN, eApplication, Revision 0.1 (2015-06-08)
2	Initial Careers Presentation (IPC)
3	Full Application
4	Royal Navy Recruitment Test (RT)
5	Formal Interview
6	Eye & Medical Tests
7	Royal Navy’s Pre-Joining Fitness Test
8	4-day Pre-Royal Navy Course	2-day Admiralty Interview Board
9	Formal Offer
10	Start Initial (Basic) Training

Recruit Attraction Methods

The Royal Navy utilises a number of marketing channels in order to engage with domestic and international populations and these include:

• High street stalls;
• Trade shows and other events;
• School and university visits;
• Commercial recruitment fairs;
• Own websites;
• Social media (Twitter, Facebook, YouTube, WordPress);
• Newspapers;
• Television;
• Billboards and posters;
• Cadet and other youth organisations; and
• Friends and family of current and ex-military personnel.

General Eligibility

There are a number of eligibility criteria that must be considered before making an application to join the Royal Navy and these vary across the trades due to the nature of the job/role an individual may wish to undertake. The general principles are outlined below:

• Age: Every job/role in the Royal Navy has a minimum and maximum age limit. The minimum age can differ between jobs/roles and is specified within each job description.
• Fitness Standards: all applicants are required to complete a pre-joining fitness test.
• Minimum Qualifications: most Ratings roles do not require minimum qualifications. However, Officers are required to achieve a higher academic standard. With over 70 roles there is a lot to choose from.
• Medical: there are various criteria including height, weight, eyesight, and checks medical conditions and any ongoing illnesses.
• Nationality & Residency: Individuals are required to fulfil a number of nationality and residency criteria. Documents required include passport, birth certificate and educational qualifications.
• Gender: generally all jobs are open to men and women.
• Criminal Convictions: some kinds of offences and sentences can bar recruits from joining or rejoining.
• Tattoos & Piercings: these are dependent on location and nature and will usually need to be declared and shown during a medical examination.

When Can an Individual Join?

Ratings

Individuals must be a minimum of 16 years old on entry to initial training, although individuals can apply from 15 years and 9 months. Older individuals must be in initial training before their 37^th birthday.

If an individual is under 18 years of age, they will need consent from their parent or guardian before they can progress their application at the Careers Office.

If an individual is currently under a care order then the British Army will have to seek permission of the local authority in order for an individual to join.

Officers

Officers must be in the age range 17-26 on entry to initial training at the Britannia Royal Naval College (BRNC), although individuals can apply for sixth form and university sponsorship earlier. Higher age limits for professional and specialist applicants apply.

Fitness Standards

Get Fit To Join

Due to the nature of military training and operations it is critical that individuals get in the best possible shape in order to help them excel during pre-joining fitness tests, initial training and throughout their military career.

The Royal Navy has put together training programmes designed to help individuals get their fitness levels to what they should be and increase their chance of success.

Pre-Joining Fitness Test

The Pre-Joining Fitness Test involves completing a 2.4km run on a treadmill at a fitness centre near the individual. Table 3 highlights the times an individual will need to meet according to their age and sex.

Table 3: Outline of Royal Navy fitness standards for the Pre-Joining Fitness Test
Age	Male	Female
15-24	11 min 13 sec	13 min 15 sec
25-29	11 min 38 sec	13 min 50 sec
30-34	12 min 08 sec	14 min 28 sec
35-39	12 min 34 sec	15 min 09 sec

If an individual is applying to the Diver Branch they will have to complete the run in 10 minutes 30 seconds regardless of age.

Minimum Qualifications

Ratings

For a number of roles there are no minimum qualifications. However, some roles require a minimum of GCSEs, A-levels or a degree qualification.

Officers

Officers require 180 UCAS points and five GCSEs (A* to C) or Scottish Standard grades or equivalent which must include maths and English. For engineering officers a UK recognised first degree in an engineering, maths or physics-based subject which must be accredited by the Engineering Council at CEng or IEng level.

Professional Qualified Officers

Professionally Qualified Officers undergo an additional competitive selection board as well as the Admiralty Interview Board.

Medical Assessment

Life in the Royal Navy can be mentally and physically challenging. This is the reason why some medical conditions and ongoing illnesses can stop an individual from joining. As such a full medical examination is part of the application process. It is worth checking the list on the Royal Navy website.

• Height and Weight: for all naval service jobs, individuals need to be at least 151.5cm tall. The only exception is the Submarine Service where there is a minimum height requirement of 157cm. Individuals must also be within the healthy range for Body Mass Index (BMI).
• Medical Standards: these include everything from respiratory problems such as asthma to musculoskeletal conditions such as joint operations or recurrent back pain, heart and cardiovascular disorders (i.e. high blood pressure). Skin disorders such as eczema or active acne may also be a barrier to service with the Royal Navy.
• Eyesight: The minimum standards for uncorrected and corrected vision vary for different jobs in the Royal Navy and Royal Marines and are determined by Royal Navy medical staff. If an individual has impaired colour perception (colour blindness) this may restrict the branches that are available.

Nationality and Residency

Table 5: Nationality and residency requirements for the Royal Navy
Requirement	Ratings	Officers
British Citizen	Yes
British Subject under the Nationality Act 1981	Yes
Citizen of a Commonwealth country or holding British Overseas Territories Citizenship	Individuals must have Indefinite Leave to Remain in the UK or have resided in the UK for five years before they can start an application to join the Royal Navy. Individuals must not have been out of the UK for a continuous period of more than 180 days (6 months) during this five year period.
British Protected Person	Yes
Citizen of the Irish Republic	Yes

Tests and Interviews

The Royal Navy has a number of techniques designed to check the suitability of individuals for life in the military. These techniques are outlined in Table 6 below:

Table 6: Outline of Royal Navy tests and interviews
Test	Description
Recruit Test (RT)	The RT will test an individual’s specific academic ability and demonstrate your ability to cope with the technical and academic aspects of Royal Navy training. Although an individual may already have academic qualifications, the RT gives the Royal Navy more information and is considered a fair way of assessing all candidates on a level playing field. There are four separate parts of the test which will need to be completed during a strict time limit, which will measure: general reasoning; verbal ability; numeracy; and mechanical comprehension.
Formal Interview	During the formal interview individuals are asked about their achievements, interests, fitness and why they want to join the Royal Navy. Your interview will also chat through the jobs most suited to the individual’s circumstances (including RT results and any existing qualifications).
Eye & Medical Tests	As above.
Pre-Joining Fitness Test	As above.
Admiralty Interview Board (AIB)	Individuals wishing to become Royal Navy officers are will need to attend the two-day Admiralty Interview Board (AIB) at HMS Sultan in Hampshire. Individuals will need to show the Royal Navy that they have ‘got what it takes’ both mentally and physically. The tests are designed to assess whether an individual has the qualities needed to successfully become an officer once they have completed their training.
AIB Day One	A 20-minute verbal test designed to demonstrate general reasoning and ability with words. A 13-minute non-verbal reasoning test, again measuring reasoning power, but this time without the emphasis on verbal skills. A 25-minute numerical test covering numerical fluency, reasoning and statistics. A 15-minute speed and accuracy test, measuring concentration and mental agility. A 15-minute spatial orientation test, involving directions, relative positions and movement. A short general service knowledge test to provide the Board with an indication of research into the Royal Navy Individuals will also need to choose one of four topics and write an essay within 45 minutes (this is an assessment of written communication skills). Finally, the multi-stage fitness test (commonly known as the ‘bleep test’) and although there is no pass or fail performance is graded.
AIB Day Two	Practical leadership task: working within a team in the gym, individuals will have to solve a practical problem, put a plan into action and respond to difficulties as they come up. The task is designed to test teamwork and leadership ability, verbal powers of communication, and resilience and strength of character.Planning exercise: individuals will get a written brief containing the details of a fictional scenario, with 15 minutes to study the information. A problem is then introduced into the scenario setting, and there are 15 minutes to discuss possible solutions with the group and reach an agreed plan. The plan is then presented to the Board as a group. The Board will question each person in the group to examine everyone’s grasp of the situation, before individually presenting your final solution to the problem.Competency interview: this involves a 30 minute interview about things the individual has done throughout their life. To prepare for this individual’s should think about times when they have been a leader, organised something, been in a team and shown courage. The Board will ask why you want to join the Royal Navy, your understanding of your chosen specialisation and your hopes and ambitions. You will also need to demonstrate a wider knowledge about the Royal Navy beyond what is available in leaflets.
Pre Royal Navy Course	The four-day induction course allows individuals to sample life in the Royal Navy and confirm that they are ready for entry. The course runs at Acquaint Centres in two locations: HMS Collingwood in Hampshire and MOD Caledonia in Rosyth. The course is designed to give individuals an introduction to life and work in the Royal Navy, including: Initial training programme for Ratings at HMS Raleigh; Ethos and values; Kit, drill, discipline, teamwork and personal responsibilities; The working environment of a surface warship or submarine; Fitness standards and healthy living; and Weapon handling. Individuals will also have to successfully complete two fitness tests: A 2.4km run completed on a track within specific times and swim 50 metres in under four minutes wearing a swimming costume without touching the bottom or sides of the pool (entry and exit of the pool is unaided and without using steps). Individuals must pass these tests to confirm they are ready to enter the Royal Navy. At the same time it is also an opportunity for individuals to experience life in the Royal Navy and be sure they are ready for the challenges ahead. Once passed, individuals will be offered a place at HMS Raleigh.

Funding and Scholarships

Age 14-17

When an individual is weighing up the next steps after school, or sixth form choices, the Royal Navy offers several options that can help secure a fantastic career.

Sixth Form Scholarship Schemes

A sixth form scholarship gives the individual financial support while they study for A-levels or equivalent qualifications and secures a place for initial officer training at BRNC once they finish.

Individuals, currently, receive £1,500 a year while studying and get to experience life in the Royal Navy before starting training. Individuals need to be in Year 11 or 12 (4th or 5th Year at Scottish secondary schools) in order to apply.

On an Engineer officer scholarship, individuals are also guaranteed a place at a Defence Technical Undergraduate Scheme (DTUS) university, or a university of their choice, with a bursary of £4,000 per year while studying for a degree, entering initial officer training upon graduation.

Welbeck Defence Sixth Form College

Aspiring engineers can fast track their careers by going attending Welbeck College, the Royal Navy’s Defence Sixth Form College near Loughborough. Applications can be made from the age of 14 for this college.

The college is residential and purpose built, and equipped with some of the best facilities and equipment in the country. Individuals will study alongside other aspiring engineers aiming for a technical career in the armed forces and the MOD civil service. After college, individuals go on to study their approved math, physics or engineering related degree at university with a, current, bursary of £4,000 per year paid by the Royal Navy.  After graduation individuals will take up their secured place at BRNC to train as an Engineer Officer.

Age 17 Onwards

On completion of A-levels or equivalent qualifications, the Royal Navy offers a fully funded in-service degree programme, which can be completed alongside initial officer training and being paid.

Defence Technical Undergraduate Scheme (DTUS)

With the DTUS an individual can study an approved maths, physics or engineering based subject at university and then join the Royal Navy as an Engineer Officer, which typically sponsors 70 students per year. If successful the individual will receive £4,000 a year throughout their degree course.

Although remaining a civilian the Royal Navy requires individuals to complete at least 45 training days each year, including weekly training nights during term-time. There are also some military attachments and exercises during Easter and summer holidays. However, individuals receive additional pay of up to £1,500 for this training in addition to any bursary.  After graduation individuals will take up their secured place at BRNC to train as an Engineer Officer and will need to complete at least three years in the service once they have finished their professional training.

Military Aviation Academy

If individuals aspire to be Aircrew Officers and wish to join the Royal Navy straight from school or college they will be awarded a fully-funded Foundation Degree in Military Aviation Studies from the Open University on successful completion of flying training at the Military Aviation Academy. A full salary is paid while studying and no tuition fees to pay. After successful completion of the foundation degree there is the option to self study to achieve the further credits required for a fully-funded BA Hons or BSc Hons degree in Military Aviation Studies.

In-service Degree for Non-Engineer Officers

When joining the Royal Navy straight from school or college as a Warfare, Hydrographic and Meteorology, or Logistics Officer, individual will be awarded a mandated Foundation Degree in Maritime Studies or Maritime Science from Plymouth University on completion of their professional training (Phase 1 and 2). After successful completion of the foundation degree there is the option to enrol on the Route to Honours programme which will result in a fully funded BSc Hons in Defence Studies or Maritime Science.  A full salary is paid while studying and no tuition fees to pay.

Bursaries

If an individual is planning to go to university, then they can apply for one of two bursary schemes. Individuals will be known as a Bursar, during which time they will still be a civilian while studying. Part of the summer holidays training is spent training with Royal Navy. The standard bursary is available to those wanting to join the Warfare, Logistics or Fleet Air Arm branches of the Royal Navy as an officer.  The bursary is to help with the costs of studying any subject at any UK university and is, currently, £1,500 per year. The technical bursary is for those individuals wishing to study for an accredited maths, physics or engineering based degree at a non-DTUS university and want to join the Royal Navy as an Engineer Officer and is, currently, worth £4,000 a year.

Medical and Dental Cadetships

Medical students can apply for an undergraduate cadetship up to three years before qualifying and dental students in the last nine terms of their undergraduate dentistry training can apply for a dental cadetship.

Medical and dental students will have to pass both the Admiralty Interview Board and a competitive selection board. However, a successful application means a generous salary starting of £15,379 per year, a book allowance and tuition fees paid while still enjoying university life as a civilian.

Cadetships guarantee a place on initial naval and foundation training with the Royal Navy.

The Future Royal Navy

The document ‘The Royal Navy Today, Tomorrow and Towards 2025’ provides the strategic vision of the future Royal Navy. It is part of the MoD response to the strategic challenges that the Royal Navy is likely to face in the future.

Background

The document is the Royal Navy’s response to the Strategic Defence and Security Review (SDSR), published by the Government in October 2010, which laid out the commitments expected of the UK Armed Forces.

The Three Core Roles

The document identifies three core roles for the Royal Navy:

1. Warfighting: conduct, or be ready to conduct, warfighting at sea and from the sea.
2. Maritime security: protect the free, safe and lawful use of the sea where it is vital to UK prosperity and security.
3. International engagement: promote UK interests by developing international partnerships

Useful Links

Listed are some links which the reader may find useful:

1. A very thorough document ‘Informed Choice? Armed Forces Recruitment Practice in the United Kingdom’ written by David Gee in 2007 and available from: http://www.informedchoice.org.uk/informedchoice/informedchoiceweb.pdf.
2. Official MoD website: http://www.gov.uk/organisations/ministry-of-defence
3. Official Royal Navy website: http://www.royalnavy.mod.uk/
4. Official Royal Navy Facebook website: https://www.facebook.com/royalnavy
5. Official Royal Navy WordPress website: http://royalnavytrainingdiaries.wordpress.com/
6. Official Royal Navy YouTube Channel: http://www.youtube.com/user/RoyalNavyOfficial
7. A document giving information about the Future Royal Navy ‘The Royal Navy Today, Tomorrow and Towards 2025’ can be found at: http://www.royalnavalmuseum.org/documents/TheRoyalNavyofthefuture.pdf
8. A report by the MoD in July 2013 on the future of the Reserve Forces ‘Reserves in the Future Force 2020: Valuable and Valued’ available from: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/210470/Cm8655-web_FINAL.pdf
9. MoD (Ministry of Defence) Fact Sheet 6: Future Force 2020 – Royal Navy is available from the Government website at: https://www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/file/62488/Factsheet6-Royal-Navy.pdf.

Useful Documents

• Policy of Recruiting Under-18s (2013-05-14)
• Functional Interpretation of Joint Medical Employment Standard (JMES)-PULHEEMS Grades (2014-07-10)
• Thomas TST (2010-05, p.2)
• Recruiting & Retention of Military Personnel (NATO, 2007)
• Personnel Selection in the Army (Line & Griffin, 1943)
• Occupational Stress & the Outcome of Basic Military Training (Jackson et al., 2011)
• Courses Requiring a Return of Service (2014-09-24)
• Royal Navy Command Future Organisation (2014-09-25)
• Royal Navy CWEM (O) SM Promotion Round Queries (2014-06-24)
• Royal Navy CWEM (O) SM Promotion Round Queries, Attachment (2014-02-06)
• Royal Navy ET(ME) GS Rating Chance of Promotion (2014-08-07)
• Royal Navy ET(ME) GS Rating Course Pass Rates (2014-08-07)
• Royal Navy Pilot Recruit Scores (Computer Based Aptitude Training (CBAT) & Final Board Mark (FBM)) for 2013 (2014-06-02)
• Royal Navy Pilots Applicant, Boarded & Input Numbers (2015-01-26)

References

DASA (Defence Analytical and Statistics Agency) (2013a) UK Armed Forces Monthly Personnel Report: 1 November 2013. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.dasa.mod.uk/publications/personnel/military/monthly-personnel-report/2013-11-01/1-november-2013.pdf. [Accessed: 04 January, 2014].

DASA (Defence Analytical and Statistics Agency) (2013b) Annual Personnel Report 2013. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.dasa.mod.uk/index.php/publications/personnel/military/annual-personnel-report/2013. [Accessed: 04 January, 2014].

Gee, D. (2007) Informed Choice? Armed Forces Recruitment Practice in the United Kingdom. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.informedchoice.org.uk/informedchoice/informedchoiceweb.pdf. [Accessed: 04 January, 2014].

National Archives (2006) Army Recruitment. Available from World Wide Web: http://media.nationalarchives.gov.uk/index.php/army-recruitment/. [Accessed: 02 January, 2014].

Taylor, C. (2010) A Brief Guide to Previous British Defence Reviews. Available from World Wide Web: http://www.parliament.uk/briefing-papers/SN05714.pdf. [Accessed: 04 January, 2014].